The Middle Eastern influence on Africa

Given the Arabian Peninsula and Israel being close to Africa, it would be inevitable that both of them would exert a big influence on Africa whether if it’s the introduction of dogs, pigs and horses, the Afro-Asiatic languages, the spread of both Islam, Christianity and Judaism or shared cuisine such as shawarma, a degree of Middle Eastern influence is inevitable in parts of Africa. One such mark would be Ajami or the tendency to write languages like Hausa in Arabic script, which obviously indicated both the influence of Arabic via Islam and that there were already written African languages other than Egyptian/Coptic.

Even before the arrival of Islam, this was mentioned in the Bible with regards to Israel coming under Egyptian rule and that Egypt itself would fall under Roman occupation, thus becoming one of the earliest African countries to become Christian and still has a substantial Christian population (Ethiopia and Eritrea are majority Christian African countries for centuries). This does explain why there are African Jews going southwards in Zimbabwe and that there are African populations with claims to Judaism such as Igbo Jews for instance. Islam’s much stronger in the North and Northwest, going as far as Cameroon in Central Africa with regards to the Hausa and Fulani and Kenya and Tanzania to the East.

This is practically how dogs, horses, pigs and the Afro-Asiatic languages spread to Africa, going from the Arabian peninsula and Israel to Africa where they get established for centuries, spread and mutate. If African dogs do come from Middle Eastern wolves, this shouldn’t be surprising because Africa’s close to the Arabian peninsula. Likewise, this is how some Arabians and Levantines migrated to Africa, though over time some of their descendants will show more Sub-Saharan African DNA (true for Nigerien Tuaregs in one study).

Comes to think of it, this is also how wheat spread to Africa that if it had been grown in Sumeria it would be introduced to this continent sometime later from Sumeria to Egypt. Trade between Arab states and Africa would be inevitable and why Arabic’s the main language in a handful of African countries along with Arabic script used for some African languages a little southwards.

On East Africa

Barring Eritrea, Somalia and Ethiopia (to some extent, as they’re all Afro-Asiatic majority as with North Africa), what unites Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda with Democratic Republic of Congo (to some extent, again)’s the use of Swahili though the usage varies.

There’s a meme saying that Swahili’s born in Tanzania, fell ill in Kenya, died in Uganda and then buried in Congo which makes sense to some extent, when it comes to the degree of usage that I feel’s the strongest in Kenya and Tanzania. (The language most likely used in Congo’s going to be French, which’s dominant there.)

To me, the biggest difference’s obviously going to be Swahili as it’s mostly spoken there whereas French predominates in the West and Central Africa, Arabic predominates the North, English’s widespread throughout West, East and Southern Africa.

(I could be wrong in here, but French does predominate in Central Africa from Cameroon to Congo.)

That and a presumably different accent and dialect, as Central and Western African dialects owe to patois then East African ones owe to Swahili more.

My church. v.8 (1922).

My church. v.8 (1922).

. Jw:..

1’1

CLEANSING THE TEMPLE

JESUS

”

“My house shall be a house of prayer

46.

—St. Luke 19

AN ILLUSTRATED I LUTHERAN MANUAL

MY CHURCH

PERTAINING PRINCIPALLY TO THE HISTORY, WORK AND SPIRIT OF THE AUCUSTANA SYNOD

VOL UME VI]!

EDITED BY REV. IRA OLIVER NOTHSTEIN, A. M.

LIBRARIAN OF AUGUSTANA COLLEGE AND THEOLOGXCAL SEMINARY ROCK ISLANDJ ILL,

Q

ROCK ISLAND, ILL. AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN

In the Courts of the Lord

“Honor and majesty are before him: Strength and beauty are in his sanctuary. Ascribe unto Jehovah, ye kindreds of the peoples, Ascribe unto Jehovah glory and strength. Ascribe unto Jehovah the glory due unto his name: ‘Bring an offering and come into his courts. Oh worship Jehovah in holy array.” PSALM 96: 6—9.

ROCK ISLAND, ILL. AUGUSTANA Boox CONCERN, PRINTERS AND Bmonns 1922

4

wIL$_ . k exeoqq ‘ ‘ _‘ I!”

1H9}

“ V4: / .\ ,\ I l is 1\ CONTENTS PAGE

Poem, A Prayer for My Church, by H. T. Domer . . . . . . 6

Foreword, by Dr. C. E. Lindberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7

Pictures from Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Poem, The Coming of the Nazarene, by Anna Hoppe. . 24

“The September Bible” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . . ..l. 26

Laurentius Laurentii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41

Some Religious Movements in Sweden, by Dr. Nils

Forsander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Gustavus Adolphus College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56

Three Noble Pioneers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68

The Augustana Synod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . 75

Map of Synod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 76

History and Work of Synod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 77

The Conferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 85

The Mission Districts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 94

The English Association . . . . . . . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

The Inner Mission Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 97

The Educational Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99

The Publishing Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 101

The Foreign Mission Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 102

Miscellaneous Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 115

Pastors Who Died during the Year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 118

Pastors Ordained during the Year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 121

The Lutheran Church in America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

The Lutheran Church of the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 127

Daily Bible Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 129

Index for Vols. I—‘ YIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

A Prager {OI

“Great Church of Luther’s name, Of saints and sages’ fame, And truth unfurled—— With voice that kingdoms shook, With hand upon the Book, With steadfast, upward look, Confront the world!

Church of the Crucified, Proclaim the death He died, His royal birth! Your crowns and branches bring, Glad hallelujahs sing, ‘ Enthrone Him Lord and King O’er all the earth!

God bless our Church, we pray, Direct her on her way,

’Midst joy and tears. Fill her with lowliness, With love and holiness, May she Thy grace possess

Through all the years.”

HARRY TENNYSON Donn-m.

F ORE W 0RD,

BY DR. C. E. LINDBERG.

On a dark and rainy evening in the early fall of the year 187 3 the writer of this article was walking the streets of Wilmington, Delaware, looking around to find some Scandinavians to whom he could preach the Gospel of Christ; and by the wonderful guidance of the Lord he had the opportunity of preaching to a gathering of Swedes the following Sunday. The Rector of the Old Swedes’ Church was visited and he promised that we could hold our services in the Church that long ago was a Swedish Lutheran Church. We preached there several times in the Swedish tongue, which language had not been heard there for a long time. Why was this church no longer a Lutheran church? We will answer this question later. In the year 1876 the Rector of the Old Swedes’ Church or Gloria Dei called upon me in Philadelphia and asked me to hold a Swedish memorial service in the old church. The Swedes in Philadelphia, my Swedish’ congregation and the Swedes at the Centennial Exposition were invited to attend. Nov. 5th,.1876, the service was held, and I

8 MY CHURCH

wore the regular Swedish garb with the Swedish robe. The old church was crowded with Swedes, some of them being descendants of the old Swedes and members of Gloria Dei church. When the Swedish Lutheran hymns were sung, the liturgy read and the Swedish sermon was delivered, the Swedish tongue had not been heard there since the time of Pastor Collin, because the church be— came an English Episcopalian congregation after his time. Twice I solemnized marriages in the Old Swedes’ church, ofliciating at the marriages of Dr. Monte’n and Dr. Petri.

Why were these old churches lost to the Swedes and to the Lutheran church? Because the mother church failed to supply ministers and had neglected to build schools, where the young people could receive instruction in the Lutheran doctrine; and because the Swedish colonies did not understand the importance of building their own Seminary, where young men could be educated to become ministers.

Thousands of Lutherans are lost to us, because we have failed in not maintaining parochial schools, in not properly conducting Sunday schools, and on account of neglect in taking care of the confirmed. We must also add too long postponement in introducing English serv ices. Every church should organize systematic work among the young people, not spasmodically, but with reg ular and carefully planned efforts. Large congregations, cities and towns should be divided into sections where good church members, especially young people, constantly visit indifferent young folks.

Another important question should be considered: Would the Augustana Synod be as influential as it is, ex tending from coast to coast and from North to South, if we had not built colleges and the Augustana Seminary? Our Seminary is one of the oldest Lutheran Seminaries. in these United States. Just now two modest buildings are rising on Zion Hill,—the new home of the Augustana Seminary. May the Seminary on Zion’s Hill direct many ‘young men towards studying for the ministry.

FOREWORD 9

There is no more glorious calling. Every congregation should have some society supporting a young man during his college and Seminary course. What could be a better aim of a society? Which church and society will begin to look for the young man to support until he can earn his expenses? Every pastor should make an effort to in terest at least one young man in becoming a student for the mininstry. One pastor in another denomination has influenced more than thirty young men to enter the Sem nary of his church. This implies many prayers and many conversations.

And to the young women who read these lines many kinds of church work should appeal, and general charity will open many fields of interesting activities. In our day there are varied fields of service where women can exercise a greater influence than many preachers and ros trum orators. Remember the many Bible women whose names recall deeds of love, charity and silent influence for good. Do not forget the praying Hannah, the mother of Samuel; Mary and Martha in Bethany, Phoebe in Cen chreae, Mary, the mother of Mark; Rhoda, the maid; Dorcas, the mother of sewing societies; and Priscilla, the teacher of Apollos. On the firmament of the Church we see many clusters of stars, such as Macrina and Emmelia with their influence on Basil the Great, Nonna with her influence on Gregory Nazianzen, Anthusa, the mother of Chrysostom, and Monica, the mother of Augustine.

During the present year a new building was conse crated at our deaconess institution in Omaha, and a drive was conducted to furnish means for a larger Augustana Hospital in Chicago, and for the Lutheran Hospital in Moline. Jll over our Synod there are activities in behalf of benevolent institutions. It is evident that many doors are thereby opened for women who desire to serve. We need women to become deaconesses or nurses. If you in your service, whatever it may be, cannot become a Jeanne d’Arc in heroic courage or otherwise prominent, do a good deed like Ursula Cotta did to Luther or be like

. Jw:..

1’1

CLEANSING THE TEMPLE

JESUS

”

“My house shall be a house of prayer

46.

—St. Luke 19

AN ILLUSTRATED I LUTHERAN MANUAL

MY CHURCH

PERTAINING PRINCIPALLY TO THE HISTORY, WORK AND SPIRIT OF THE AUCUSTANA SYNOD

VOL UME VI]!

EDITED BY REV. IRA OLIVER NOTHSTEIN, A. M.

LIBRARIAN OF AUGUSTANA COLLEGE AND THEOLOGXCAL SEMINARY ROCK ISLANDJ ILL,

Q

ROCK ISLAND, ILL. AUGUSTANA BOOK CONCERN

In the Courts of the Lord

“Honor and majesty are before him: Strength and beauty are in his sanctuary. Ascribe unto Jehovah, ye kindreds of the peoples, Ascribe unto Jehovah glory and strength. Ascribe unto Jehovah the glory due unto his name: ‘Bring an offering and come into his courts. Oh worship Jehovah in holy array.” PSALM 96: 6—9.

ROCK ISLAND, ILL. AUGUSTANA Boox CONCERN, PRINTERS AND Bmonns 1922

4

wIL$_ . k exeoqq ‘ ‘ _‘ I!”

1H9}

“ V4: / .\ ,\ I l is 1\ CONTENTS PAGE

Poem, A Prayer for My Church, by H. T. Domer . . . . . . 6

Foreword, by Dr. C. E. Lindberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7

Pictures from Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Poem, The Coming of the Nazarene, by Anna Hoppe. . 24

“The September Bible” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . . ..l. 26

Laurentius Laurentii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 41

Some Religious Movements in Sweden, by Dr. Nils

Forsander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Gustavus Adolphus College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 56

Three Noble Pioneers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 68

The Augustana Synod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . 75

Map of Synod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 76

History and Work of Synod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 77

The Conferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 85

The Mission Districts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 94

The English Association . . . . . . . . . . . . i . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

The Inner Mission Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 97

The Educational Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 99

The Publishing Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 101

The Foreign Mission Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 102

Miscellaneous Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 115

Pastors Who Died during the Year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 118

Pastors Ordained during the Year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 121

The Lutheran Church in America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

The Lutheran Church of the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 127

Daily Bible Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 129

Index for Vols. I—‘ YIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

A Prager {OI

“Great Church of Luther’s name, Of saints and sages’ fame, And truth unfurled—— With voice that kingdoms shook, With hand upon the Book, With steadfast, upward look, Confront the world!

Church of the Crucified, Proclaim the death He died, His royal birth! Your crowns and branches bring, Glad hallelujahs sing, ‘ Enthrone Him Lord and King O’er all the earth!

God bless our Church, we pray, Direct her on her way,

’Midst joy and tears. Fill her with lowliness, With love and holiness, May she Thy grace possess

Through all the years.”

HARRY TENNYSON Donn-m.

F ORE W 0RD,

BY DR. C. E. LINDBERG.

On a dark and rainy evening in the early fall of the year 187 3 the writer of this article was walking the streets of Wilmington, Delaware, looking around to find some Scandinavians to whom he could preach the Gospel of Christ; and by the wonderful guidance of the Lord he had the opportunity of preaching to a gathering of Swedes the following Sunday. The Rector of the Old Swedes’ Church was visited and he promised that we could hold our services in the Church that long ago was a Swedish Lutheran Church. We preached there several times in the Swedish tongue, which language had not been heard there for a long time. Why was this church no longer a Lutheran church? We will answer this question later. In the year 1876 the Rector of the Old Swedes’ Church or Gloria Dei called upon me in Philadelphia and asked me to hold a Swedish memorial service in the old church. The Swedes in Philadelphia, my Swedish’ congregation and the Swedes at the Centennial Exposition were invited to attend. Nov. 5th,.1876, the service was held, and I

8 MY CHURCH

wore the regular Swedish garb with the Swedish robe. The old church was crowded with Swedes, some of them being descendants of the old Swedes and members of Gloria Dei church. When the Swedish Lutheran hymns were sung, the liturgy read and the Swedish sermon was delivered, the Swedish tongue had not been heard there since the time of Pastor Collin, because the church be— came an English Episcopalian congregation after his time. Twice I solemnized marriages in the Old Swedes’ church, ofliciating at the marriages of Dr. Monte’n and Dr. Petri.

Why were these old churches lost to the Swedes and to the Lutheran church? Because the mother church failed to supply ministers and had neglected to build schools, where the young people could receive instruction in the Lutheran doctrine; and because the Swedish colonies did not understand the importance of building their own Seminary, where young men could be educated to become ministers.

Thousands of Lutherans are lost to us, because we have failed in not maintaining parochial schools, in not properly conducting Sunday schools, and on account of neglect in taking care of the confirmed. We must also add too long postponement in introducing English serv ices. Every church should organize systematic work among the young people, not spasmodically, but with reg ular and carefully planned efforts. Large congregations, cities and towns should be divided into sections where good church members, especially young people, constantly visit indifferent young folks.

Another important question should be considered: Would the Augustana Synod be as influential as it is, ex tending from coast to coast and from North to South, if we had not built colleges and the Augustana Seminary? Our Seminary is one of the oldest Lutheran Seminaries. in these United States. Just now two modest buildings are rising on Zion Hill,—the new home of the Augustana Seminary. May the Seminary on Zion’s Hill direct many ‘young men towards studying for the ministry.

FOREWORD 9

There is no more glorious calling. Every congregation should have some society supporting a young man during his college and Seminary course. What could be a better aim of a society? Which church and society will begin to look for the young man to support until he can earn his expenses? Every pastor should make an effort to in terest at least one young man in becoming a student for the mininstry. One pastor in another denomination has influenced more than thirty young men to enter the Sem nary of his church. This implies many prayers and many conversations.

And to the young women who read these lines many kinds of church work should appeal, and general charity will open many fields of interesting activities. In our day there are varied fields of service where women can exercise a greater influence than many preachers and ros trum orators. Remember the many Bible women whose names recall deeds of love, charity and silent influence for good. Do not forget the praying Hannah, the mother of Samuel; Mary and Martha in Bethany, Phoebe in Cen chreae, Mary, the mother of Mark; Rhoda, the maid; Dorcas, the mother of sewing societies; and Priscilla, the teacher of Apollos. On the firmament of the Church we see many clusters of stars, such as Macrina and Emmelia with their influence on Basil the Great, Nonna with her influence on Gregory Nazianzen, Anthusa, the mother of Chrysostom, and Monica, the mother of Augustine.

During the present year a new building was conse crated at our deaconess institution in Omaha, and a drive was conducted to furnish means for a larger Augustana Hospital in Chicago, and for the Lutheran Hospital in Moline. Jll over our Synod there are activities in behalf of benevolent institutions. It is evident that many doors are thereby opened for women who desire to serve. We need women to become deaconesses or nurses. If you in your service, whatever it may be, cannot become a Jeanne d’Arc in heroic courage or otherwise prominent, do a good deed like Ursula Cotta did to Luther or be like

10 MY cannon

Catharine von Bora. If you have means to study at our academies, colleges or Bible schools, do it, and equip your self; but never forget that in whatever honest station you may be placed, you serve the Master. The Church is ‘ much indebted to the Christian women in every walk of life.

i l I

View of one of the peaks 0! Kilimanjaro (Kibo) as seen from the plateau.

Pictures from Africa.

17: HE following pen-pictures of scenes on our new E322} mission field in East Africa have been gathered 69*» from letters written by the late Dr. C. L. Brown while on his tour of visitation, from June to Aug ust, 1921. The letters may be found in full in the little volume called In Memoriam, published by the officers of the Board of Foreign Missions of the United Lutheran Church in America, Baltimore, 1922.

its

Dar-es-Salaam.-—The low coast line of Africa lies to the left. Beyond are millions of blacks, without God, the burden-bearers for many races. Poor fellows! There is but one power that has ever done much for them, and there is but one power that can do much for them, and that power is the Gospel.

Dar-es-Salaam is a rather pretty town. It has a very pretty sea-coast and a nice little harbor. The cocoanut palm groves and almond and locust trees make a pretty scene.

. a a a

Moshi, Tanga.—A little inn called the “Africa,” one story high and with a tin roof, shelters us as we wait here at the foot of the great African mountain Kilimanjaro,

12 MY CHURCH

which towers 19,500 feet, with perpetual snow around the higher reaches. The air is cool and delightful.

This station, called Old Moshi, is the strongest and has some 1,600 Lutheran Christians. A deputation from this congregation met us and carried our heavy baggage

_ five miles up the hills. They also brought a letter of wel come from the congregation. The son of the native chief is a catechumcn and his daughter is a Christian. The Christians have been very faithful, and I hope the Ameri can Christians will be just as faithful now in coming to the rescue.

a a a

Masama, near Moshi.—First introduction to the real African trail, no more railroads or steamships from now on, right through the bush, on foot, most of the time by a narrow path. We pass the natives with spears, com— ing and going in various directions.v The ants are very troublesome here and have damaged the mission home. Upon arrival at Masama about sixin the evening we found the congregation of 150 or 200 drawn up in line and singing, “Now Thank We All Our God,” after which followed a few words of welcome. These people belong to the Wachaga tribe, a good tribe as compared with the Masai.

We visited a mission school this morning. ‘Forty girls were in attendance. Boys and girls attend on alternate days. They are taught reading, writing, arithmetic and a language called Kiswahili. The children are from 8 or 10 years to 14 or 16 years of age. Outside the school house are great piles of stone which the natives have brought there for the purpose of building a chapel. They have carried the stones over a mile on their heads, and all ‘ this they are doing without help from the Mission.

On the way to the school-house we passed a sacred spring from which once upon a time, it is said, an ele phant and a woman sprang. These became the progeni tors of the VVachaga tribe. The chief comes here every

~

14 MY CHURCH

year and holds a festival with the people. No one is al lowed to cut down any of the trees about the spring. Flowers are everywhere,—roses, in abundance, and ole ander, orange, apple, lemon, banana and coffee trees flour— ish. The country is beautiful, but the nearest doctor is 20 miles away and the nearest dentist about 200 miles. a a a

A mission station 4,800 feet above sea-level. The Mis-r sion compound is filled with the most beautiful trees, cedar, eucalyptus, mango, lemon, wild fig, etc. The grounds are covered with the most beautiful roses, fuch sias, oleander, etc. The surrounding hills are covered with banana groves. Facing the plains one looks out on a wide expanse of almost level ground, with mountains rising up here and there. Last night when we arrived we found that the people had been waiting for us, but since we did not arrive earlier they had gone home. They had decorated the walk leading up to the Mission Home with archways of tremendous palm leaves, roses and fuch sias. The Whole front of the house Was covered with floral decorations. They had also brought presents of potatoes, eggs, milk and a chicken.

To-day they gathered about noon to sing to us songs of welcome and offer a speech,—there were about 300 men, women and children. Afterwards about fifty of the more important members and the teachers came up on the

veranda to shake hands. ‘* ‘t’ ¥

Marangu.—Many of the Christian huts are tipped with a cross. They look rather picturesque set among the banana groves.

In the afternoon was held the regular week-day serv ice for the Christians. The church was filled and many stood on the outside. Full five hundred or more were in attendance. On Sunday anyone may come to the service, but on Thursday afternoon only the Christians.

Yesterday when we were coming to this place through

’JA.DI

em \l/A U

Tanganyika Territory, East Africa‘ The broken lines enclose our mission area, part of which lies in British East frica.

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Z M . Baitrsn shsr ’r\i

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Sketch map of Tanganyika Territory and our Mission Field, copied from the map of the

Leipzig Society.

The railroad from Moshi to Victoria Nianza is only projected.

16 ‘ MY CHURCH

the woods, as we were still about two hours away, we suddenly came upon a host of men, women and children, Christians from Marangu-Mamba, who had come to meet us in the way and welcome us. There were full 500 or 600 of them and every one of them carried a long stick with a bunch of pretty flowers tied at the end. Most were in the shape of a torch, others took the form of a , cross. Some of the children were not over 6 or 7 years old and had come all that distance (probably six or eight miles). As we drew near they began singing Christian hymns. After a few words of greeting the whole con— gregation turned and led off toward Marangu, lifting their flower-banners aloft. As they went they sang hymns all the way. As the long line wound its way over hills and across valleys, over rocky paths and trembling bridges, the heathen from every quarter flocked to the roadside and watched the procession and cried out “jam be!” which is their salutation. Occasionally some aged mother, more bold than the rest, would step into the road and grasp my hand saying, “O jambo, jambo!” For 0m;I trained among the Japanese this was a wonderful slg t. ‘

When we reached the house after two h0urs of fast marching, the children leaping and singing by the road side, and the grown-ups chanting all the way, the pro- – cession halted and parted to either side of the road, and, lifting their flower-banners high, formed an archway of flowers, under which we passed into the Mission com pound.

There are only eight white people in this whole dis _trict. One woman was very sick this morning and they are trying to get a doctor. There is only one doctor nearer than 50 miles and he is 30 or 35 miles away and is no good. Poor woman! I’m sorry for her and wish I were a doctor myself.

Yesterday was Sunday and a big day here. There is a nice church here and a baptized membership of 1,300. At 9 in the morning the regular service began. The house

‘Tsava SWAMP ; y

The Tanganyika Mission Field. Copied from the map/of the Leipzig So ciety. Most prominent mission stations marked with a cross.

/

Sketch map of our new African field, shown in broken lines on preceding map. The rail road from Moshi north-westward is as yet only projected.

Queer witches

Though this is not always exactly, universally nor consistently the case it seems parsimonious, that as inferred from some studies on African witchcraft, homosexuality and nudity are often associated with sorcery. Even their European and Middle Eastern counterparts used to think the same way too. That actually makes sense really.

The association’s not lost on the Iranian Zoroastrians, which I think helps deconstruct monotheistic Abrahamic homophobia well. In the sense that homosexuality is demonic, sinister, devilish and evil. Or at the very least highly unexpected and odd. (At some point, lesbianism was criminalised in England and still is in some countries though Botswana repealed this.)

That’s not to say I condone homophobia though I think it’s kind of wrong to poop on fundamentalists for not approving of homosexuality. (If they fear witchcraft, they might unconsciously associate homosexuality with witchcraft.) It does make it more understandable though.

Dehumanising the human, anthropomorphising the nonhuman

Like I said, not all blacks hate dogs as there are those who do like or own them. The real issue might arguably lie in dehumanising other people for so long that it gets easy to marginalise or ignore them. Again not all black people hate dogs but given the history of slavery in America or being marginalised in South Africa and part of Tanzania if/when whites prioritise animals above their fellow human beings it does feel bad. Supposing there’s something lost in time.

A white family and their black servant. The white man keeps making his black counterpart do the dirty work while he plays with his pets. The black servant ends up having to clean up the pets’ poo every now and then and complains that the white person’s too busy feeding animals and not him. I even have a maid who sometimes does the same things even though she is of the same ethnicity as me. But that’s enough to give you an idea of how some AA, Tanzanians and black South Africans can’t stand the way white people treat pets vs mistreating fellow people.

It’s as if some people have difficulty imagining their dogs as vicious predators or black people as anything other than stereotyped preconceptions of sorts. While there are black people who’re serious criminals, there are also those who’re genuine law-abidding citizens who sometimes get unfairly suspected. There are black people who sexually abuse people but there are also black people who get sexually abused themselves. Sometimes by whites and I vividly recall a report about an African footballer who got trafficked and abused by Europeans.

I admit to be being rejected by two black men for what I did to them before and some black people can be disappointing as others are affirming. But then again that’s realising they are people with serious feelings and individual sensibilities and experiences. As to why not too many AA aren’t that dog-obsessed, though there are AAs that host dog shows and own pets themselves (cats and dogs) let’s not forget that dogs were also used to attack them.

Not to mention there are some AA men who don’t want to date women with dogs, thinking the latter to be desperately lonely as to hook up with a nonhuman. (There are also some AA men who don’t want to date women with children and single mothers.) That doesn’t stop other AA men from owning dogs. There are black animal abusers but there are also black people who sincerely like and do work with animals.

But that involves thinking of them as people more, especially with awful feelings like their white counterparts that it makes the over-anthropomorphism of animals seem delusional. In the sense of ignoring that their pets can do an awful lot of damage whilst realising black people are people too. Not to mention that AA are highly pressured to not only avoid offending whites (and also pressured to look in a certain way, especially straightening hair) but also avoid black stereotypes (don’t be ghetto thing) that sometimes even having a pet can become another burden that involves cleaning again.

Moreso in the days of slavery.

Big Game Shooting on the Equator (Archive.org)

(2) Camwora. — The hunting dog is by far
the worst of all animals for killing game. A
pack of these brutes-— one cannot call them any-
thing else — ^gets on to the track of an antelope
and the unfortunate animal is pursued up hill and
down dale till he is pulled down by his relentless
foes. When a pack is sighted they should be
slaughtered en masse — mere killing is too good
for them. One longs for the old days of rack
and thumbscrew to torture them with. Lions
and the spotted pard take their toll no doubt,
but in a more gentlemanly manner as a rule,

248

The Preservation of Big Game

except when the latter lies up near a station, as
they so often do, to feed on one’s maiden-aunt’s
yapping lap-dog! That is the worst of the
leopard, that besides the above-mentioned cur he
takes it into his head to carry off one s best
spaniel or retriever when trotting along beside
one when one is absolutely unprepared. Sitting
on an overhanging branch of a tree or in a bush
beside the path, he makes one spring and the
gruesome deed is done.

Camivora must be shot in all game reserves, as
otherwise (a) they will kill too much game;
(6) the antelopes, etc, being attracted there by the
quiet and the presence of other species in very
lai^e quantities, so much more will the camivora
be attracted on account of the scarcity of game
outside; when their presence will tend to drive
out all these animals to be shot elsewhere, thus
making what ought to be a sanctuary a holy
terror after all. This could easily be done by
granting previously tickets for a limited time each
to sportsmen who would not overstep the mark,
and it would not, I think, disturb the game un-
duly.

Spotting a hyena (Google Books)

To a Land He Showed Us – Page 45
https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=0533103096

Stanley W. Hoffman – 1992 – ‎Snippet view
While witchcraft with the evil eye is primarily carried out in daylight hours, there is another form that is strictly a nighttime activity. In this the hyena plays an important role. The witch owns at least one of these creatures, which he or she rides to …
The hyena
https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=0896863840

Carl R. Green, ‎William Reynolds Sanford – 1988 – ‎Snippet view
Examines the physical characteristics, behavior, lifestyle, and natural environment of the three species of hyenas.
This Hyena Is Going to Heaven – Page 252
https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=1450287115

Grace King’ara – 2011 – ‎Preview – ‎More editions
They all liked the king more than her, and he liked them right back. That was a devil to deal with all on its own. Chameleon had just given her another magic portion. It was not really witchcraft, but the king’s eyes were going to 252 The Birth of a …
MORAL IMAG KAGURU MODES PB
https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=1560982365

BEIDELMAN T – 1993 – ‎Snippet view – ‎More editions
Winner of the African Studies Association’s 1987 Herskovits Award, this book examines the Kaguru and the imagery this Tanzanian Bantu people uses to convey notions of gender, time, authority, and morality.
Witchcraft in Ghana: A Study on the Belief in Destructive Witches …
https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=tVUrAAAAIAAJ

Hans Werner Debrunner – 1961 – ‎Snippet view – ‎More editions
In the north, the commonest type of wer-wolf is the wer- hyena. I know of no man from the Northern Territories who is not absolutely convinced that men do change quite often into hyenas ” (Cardinall).(77) In this state, the transformed witches …
Communities of Faith in Africa and the African Diaspora: In Honor of …
https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=1630873071

Casely B. Essamuah, ‎David K. Ngaruiya – 2014 – ‎Preview – ‎More editions
Therefore, suspecting, avoiding, accusing, or shunning suspected witches cuts off relationships within extended families … ambivalent. most northwestern tanzanians are more likely to believe that a witch can turn into a hyena or an owl than to …
Tanzania Notes and Records – Issue 63 – Page 185
https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=qGYMAQAAIAAJ

1964 – ‎Snippet view – ‎More editions
(a) Hyena’s Singing Drum 40 Once there was a man staying in the mountains. There in the mountains they were … They associate the hyena with witches since both are creatures of the night which feed off the dead. Hyenas are the familiars of …
Tanganyika Notes and Records – Issues 62-64 – Page 185
https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=t68aAQAAMAAJ

1964 – ‎Snippet view – ‎More editions
(a) Hyena’s Singing Drum 40 Once there was a man staying in the mountains. There in the … Among these expert dancers was Hyena. … They associate the hyena with witches since both are creatures of the night which feed off the dead.
Encounters with Witchcraft: Field Notes from Africa
https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=1438443595

Norman N. Miller – 2012 – ‎Preview – ‎More editions
A renowned authority on East Africa examines the effects of witchcraft beliefs on African culture, politics, and family life.
The Hyena People: Ethiopian Jews in Christian Ethiopia
https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=0520923014

Hagar Salamon – 1999 – ‎Preview – ‎More editions
Hagar Salamon presents the first in-depth study of this group, called the “Hyena people” by their non-Jewish neighbors.

Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds: A …
https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=0195151232

Daniel Ogden – 2002 – ‎Preview
All these things should be cooked up together and smeared onto a hyena skin. Hyena gall is beneficial for the same disease, combined with the Assos stone. 97. Those suffering from trembling, spasms, nervousness, and heart palpitations …
Encyclopedia of Witchcraft: The Complete A-Z for the Entire Magical …
https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=0062372025

Judika Illes – 2015 – ‎Preview – ‎More editions
Any evidence, regardless how flimsy or tangential, linking someone with hyenas may be considered proof of sorcery in African witchcraft trials. Witches ride hyenas. Witches keep hyena familiars. Witches are hyenas. Witches shapeshift into …
Witchcraft and Sorcery in East Africa – Page 166
https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=113655145X

John Middleton, ‎E. H. Winter – 2013 – ‎Preview – ‎More editions
possesses one or more hyenas which are branded (invisibly to normal eyes) with his mark, and to which he refers as his ‘night cattle5. Some people say that all hyenas are owned by witches—that there are no free or wild hyenas. Hyenas …
The Weiser Field Guide to Witches: From Hexes to Hermoine Granger, …
https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=1609252993

Judika Illes – 2010 – ‎Preview – ‎More editions
Folklorically speaking, any hyena may have some association with witches. Witches ride hyenas. Witches keep hyenas, known as “night cattle,” milking them daily. In some regions, it’s considered dangerous to harm a hyena as its witch will …
Africa – Page 369
https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=HVIqAQAAIAAJ

Diedrich Westermann, ‎Edwin William Smith, ‎Cyril Daryll Forde – 2006 – ‎Snippet view – ‎More editions
As with the broader notion of witchcraft, however, evidence concerning shape-shifting in the Voltaic savanna does not sit … The creature most commonly associated with the shape-changing proclivities of witches, however, was the hyena …
Witchcraft and Policing: South Africa Police Service Attitudes …
https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=ZozaAAAAMAAJ

Riekje Pelgrim – 2003 – ‎Snippet view
South Africa Police Service Attitudes Towards Witchcraft and Witchcraft-related Crime in the Northern Province Riekje Pelgrim … Realising that the hyena was pregnant, she decided that she wasn’t going to use it any more. When the hyena …
Nature Across Cultures: Views of Nature and the Environment in …
https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=9401701490

Helaine Selin – 2013 – ‎Preview – ‎More editions
It is more clearly the bold and sinister spotted hyena with takes us off into the large and important theme of witchcraft. Without too long a digression, it is useful to give a working definition of witchcraft: it is the practice of harming members of …
Death in the Long Grass: A Big Game Hunter’s Adventures in the …
https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=1466803924

Peter Hathaway Capstick – 1978 – ‎Preview – ‎More editions
Because, in older times, so many men ended up inside of hyenas, man shares a closer mystic relationship with them than with any other animal, particularly in the realms of black magic and witchcraft. Hyenas are traditionally, in many tribal …
Dew in the Morning – Page vi
https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=0435912062

Shimmer Chinodya – 2001 – ‎Preview – ‎More editions
These details are most obviously present in the descriptions of crops, but they also make accessible to the reader the hostility of the countryside – the dead cow whose belly is torn open by a hyena, ghosts, witchcraft or the ceremony to smell …
Fodor’s The Complete Guide to African Safaris: with South Africa, …
https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=0770432808

Fodor’s – 2013 – ‎Preview – ‎More editions
Both strategic hunters and opportunists, hyenas will feed on their own kill as well as that of others. Aggressive and dangerous, African folklore links the hyena with witchcraft and legends. NILE CROCODILE Averaging about 16 feet and 700 …

Chaka – Page 27
https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=0435902296

Thomas Mofolo – 1981 – ‎Preview – ‎More editions
On many evenings, while the people were sitting around or as they were about to turn in, a hyena, if it had found no goats to … in the young men’s hut, so that such hazards of the night, including those involving witchcraft, should begin with him.
The Night Battles: Witchcraft and Agrarian Cults in the Sixteenth …
https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=1421409933

Carlo Ginzburg – 2013 – ‎Preview – ‎More editions
Carlo Ginzburg looks at how the Inquisition’s officers interpreted these tales to support their world view that the peasants were in fact practicing sorcery.
Animals in African Art: From the Familiar to the Marvelous – Page 75
https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=NATqAAAAMAAJ

Allen F. Roberts, ‎Carol A. Thompson, ‎Museum for African Art. New York, NY. – 1995 – ‎Snippet view – ‎More editions
One of the most common culprits of this sort is the spotted hyena, a singular beast that is portrayed in many forms of African art, but … “Hyenas” of the Kazanzi anti-witchcraft society, which Tabwa share with Luba, see to the bloody business of …
The Werewolf Delusion
https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=0709208731

Ian Woodward – 1979 – ‎No preview – ‎More editions
Power and Influence: Self-Development Lessons from African Proverbs …
https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=0761858725

Chiku Malunga – 2012 – ‎Preview – ‎More editions
We have heard of and seen individuals who were left behind or dropped from ‘witchcraft airplanes’ that fly invisibly at … of manslaughter after shooting to death a hyena whose corpse had turned into that of a human being (soon after been …
The Natural Genesis –
https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=1602060851

Gerald Massey – 2007 – ‎Preview – ‎More editions
In The Natural Genesis, Massey delivers a sequel, delving deeper into his compelling polemic. Volume II provides detailed discourse on the Egyptian origin of the delicate components of the monotheistic creed.
Who Needs a Missionary?: How the Gospel Works All by Itself – Page 14
https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=1630871818

Robert Reese – 2014 – ‎Preview – ‎More editions
In Africa, such creatures as the owl, hyena, and antbear are regarded as either emanations of evil spirits or transport for witches. In either case, their appearance creates the fear that someone is planning to do evil against the one who sees …
La Sorcière: The Witch of the Middle Ages
https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=J_kvBebTZ4sC

1863 – ‎Read – ‎More editions
Animal Teeth and Human Tools: A Taphonomic Odyssey in Ice Age Siberia
https://books.google.com.ph/books?isbn=1107067650

Christy G. Turner II, ‎Nicolai D. Ovodov, ‎Olga V. Pavlova – 2013 – ‎Preview – ‎More editions
The culmination of more than a decade of fieldwork and related study, this unique book uses analyses of perimortem taphonomy in Ice Age Siberia to propose a new hypothesis for the peopling of the New World.
Sorcery in Its Social Setting: A Study of the Northern Rhodesian Ceŵa
https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=9ru8AAAAIAAJ

M. G. Marwick – 1965 – ‎Preview – ‎More editions

Genetics and the Behaviour of Dometic Animals (Excerpt)

Differences in the Behavior of
Landraces and Breeds of Dogs
Kathryn Lord, Lorna Coppinger, and Raymond Coppinger
School of Cognitive Science, Hampshire College, Amherst, MA, USA
In 1758 Linnaeus classified the domestic dog as Canis familiaris, a species
designation. Subspecies of dogs are called landraces or breeds, which are
thought to have breed-specific behaviors that predispose its members to perform some task in a manner superior to any other landrace or breed. Since
there are more than 300 breeds of dogs, it might be said that behaviorally
(ethologically) dogs are the most varied species of mammals. However,
many of the modern breeds are developed by breed clubs, which often have
little interest in working ability.
Indeed many of the variations in dog sizes and shapes are simply the
preservation of mutations (Kemper et al., 2012). Various forms of dwarfism,
gigantisms, and skull shapes are reasonably common in many mammals
including humans (Kemper et al., 2012; Millien, 2006; Perry and Dominy,
2009; Zabek and Slota, 2007), but these are bred for capriciously in dogs
(Asher et al., 2009; Bond, 2007; Coppinger and Coppinger, 2001; Serpell,
1995). For example, modern breeds such as dachshunds or bassett hounds
are achondroplastic dwarfs, the result of a single gene mutation and not the
result of people artificially selecting for short legs.
Within the subspecies “dog”, landraces and breeds vary widely and are
phenotypically distinct from each other and from other members of the genus
Canis. At the same time, skeletal characteristics that clearly discriminate
dogs as a whole from other species and sub-species of the genus Canis do
not exist.
Taxonomists often characterize (normal) mesaticephalic dogs as having
robust frontal bones, overlapping dentiton or a shorter facial length, but
these characteristics are not well differentiated, statistically (Coppinger
et al., 2010). So-called diagnostic features of dogs can be found in ontogenetic stages of other members of the genus. For example, sub-adult wolves
have short, wide palate lengths with overlapping dentition. Descriptive
differentiation of dogs is always a matter of how the sample was chosen.
195 Genetics and the Behavior of Domestic Animals. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394586-0.00006-8
© 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Characters we diagnose as strictly “dog,” such as hypertrophied barking
(Lord et al., 2009), or diestrous cycling (rare or nonexistent in wild canids)
(Lord et al., 2013), or coat color and pattern, do not fossilize. Dog-like skeletons found in proximity to humans are difficult to distinguish from fossil
remains of dog-like animals not found near humans. Further, it is difficult to
distinguish wolf skulls from those of dogs if the animals being compared are
the same size. One distinguishing characteristic is that the brain case of
“big” dogs is smaller in proportion to the brain case of big wolves. However,
dogs in the 14-kg range do not have small brains, but rather have genustypical brain size.
Honacki et al. (1982) suggested a reclassification of the dog as a subspecies of the wolf, Canis lupus familiaris. From a biological standpoint we
agree with that and only object that it doesn’t go far enough. C. lupus,
C. familiaris, C. aureus, C. dingo, and C. simensis should all be classified as
incipient species or subspecies of one another (Coppinger et al., 2010). Of
course, from a political standpoint, renaming the members of this genus as
one species would be problematic for endangered species policy, given the
multitude of domestic dogs.
Selection for breed-specific behavior is often interpreted as an analog to
Darwin’s theory of transmutation of species by natural selection. Darwin
(1858) himself equated breed selection with natural selection:
It is wonderful what the principle of selection by man, that is the picking out of
individuals with any desired quality, and breeding from them, and again picking out,
can do.”
Darwin, 1899
Darwin was fascinated with domestic dogs and pigeons not only because of
the morphological varieties, but because roller and tumbler varieties of
pigeons, for example, displayed breed-specific behaviors. Domestication was
for Darwin a way to picture the natural selection argument, and not as a phenomenon that tested his hypothesis. Using selection by humans as the model to
explain breed diversification, he then equated it to wild species diversification:
Now suppose there were a being who did not judge by mere external appearances,
but who could study the whole internal organization, who was never capricious and
should go on selecting for one object during millions of generations …
Darwin, 1858
Many scientists have applied the tenets of Darwin’s theory back onto the
domestication process, following the rules of natural selection. Researchers
of domestication assign selective advantages for each observable trait,
in what Maderson et al. (1982) describe as “a posteriori rationalizations of
presumed selective advantage which cannot by definition, be experimentally
verified.” For example, Price (1984) wrote that “… characteristics of the
juvenile … are retained into adulthood, perhaps as a result of selection to
196 Genetics and the Behavior of Domestic Animals
preserve the greater aesthetic appeal of the young animal.” The point is that
domestication is an analog to natural selection; it is not the experimental test
of the hypothesis. The argument becomes circular.
There is ample evidence that domestication happened very quickly (perhaps 9000 years ago), and that landrace forms of domestic breeds appeared as
the result of natural selection. Breeds, however, are not products of natural
selection but the result of founder effects, mutational anomalies, and hybridization, causing saltations (phylogenetic leaps, or novelties in form, as distinct
from Darwin’s gradualism). In other words, there were sudden changes in
both physical characteristics and behavior. In this paper we explore the
processes of breed divergence, especially exploring breed-specific behaviors.
In the last 20 years researchers have attempted to determine the phylogenetic origins of dogs and the location of those origins by means of neutral
mutation theory. So far, such techniques cannot account for effects of population size or genetic drift (Coppinger et al., 2010) or the effects of frequent
hybridization (admixture) (Larson et al., 2012).
Rindos (1980) described domestication as a developing symbiotic relationship between humans and the domestic species. Symbiosis is often used
as a synonym for mutualism, defined as two species living together for
mutual benefit. Ecologists, however, reserve the word mutualism for a permanent and obligatory relationship that benefits both species. Other forms of
symbiotic relationships are (obligatory) commensalism, where the benefit is
entirely for one species while the other neither benefits nor is harmed, and
(obligatory) parasitism, which benefits the one species to the detriment of
the other. As we discuss the various breeds of dogs, we will explore their
ecology and suggest how their behavior evolved and what kind of symbiotic
relationship they have developed with humans.
FIVE KINDS OF DOGS
Five types of dogs are described, each representing a behavioral “type form”
(a taxonomic standard for comparison) of domestic dogs. Descriptions of
morphological and behavioral uniqueness of each of these types provide a
background for discussion of the genetic bases for their breed-specific
behaviors.
The five types are based on contemporary observations and studies.
There are perhaps 700,000,000 to a billion dogs in the world, with humans
having reproductive control over a minority of them (Stafford, 2007; Lord
et al., in review). Probably 75% or more of the dogs in the world reproductively behave as any wild species and are subject to natural selection. These
are commonly the landrace dogs, those local types of domestic canids that
evolve mainly on their own by, as it were, natural selection. All over the
world, their adaptation to their immediate environment has resulted in a
huge population of dogs that are usually short-haired, weigh about 14 kg,
Chapter | 6 Differences in the Behavior of Landraces and Breeds of Dogs 197
stand about 45 cm at the shoulder, and can be any color, with ash-yellow
being common. The constraints on reproduction of these animals is entirely
post-zygotic (selective advantage is conferred to individuals after they are
born). The fewer number of working dogs and pet-class dogs are the result
of pre-zygotic selection (bred by selecting for certain parental traits). We
would like to imagine the five types as a phylogenetic sequence. The five
types are presented in an order that suggests both the origin of the dog as a
species and its subsequent diversification into subspecific and racial breeds.
The five types are:
1. Village dogs. The vast majority of dogs are natural scavengers, and they
obey the rules of a niche-adapted species.
2. Livestock-guarding dogs. These are mostly landrace animals, rather than
breeds; they are village dogs that ontogenetically/developmentally acquire
working behaviors.
3. Sled dogs. The unique morphology and behavior of sled-pullers are the
result of choosing individuals from a background population, and
hybridization.
4. Herding dogs, gun dogs, and hounds. These breeds result from prezygotic selection and have unique sets of innate motor patterns necessary
for their specific task.
5. Household dogs. This very large population of dogs is adopted for pet or
companion qualities.
Village Dogs
Ecology
Neolithic humans have lived in permanent settlements for approximately
10,000 years. These settlements now range in size from small seasonal
shelters to cities, but in this chapter we call them all villages. Coexisting in
and around these villages are many animal species. A short list includes
cockroaches, rats, house mice, pigeons, cats, and a variety of canids—foxes,
jackals, wolves, and, of interest here, dogs. It is rare to find some of these species (especially the dog) anywhere else but in the village environment. Thus
the environment in and around a village can be viewed as a niche(s). The
species living exclusively in this niche have adapted to forage, reproduce, and
avoid hazards in the presence of humans. In some cases these adaptations
(process) are developed ontogenetically, while others appear to be evolutionary adaptations (results of natural selection).
Dogs are well-known village occupants the world over, existing sometimes in great numbers—estimates range to 61 billion. In some places there
may be 1001000 dogs/square kilometer. For example, (the village of)
Baltimore, Maryland, has supported an estimated 40,000 free-ranging dogs
(Beck, 1973). Boitani and Fabbri (1983) estimated 800,000 free-ranging
198 Genetics and the Behavior of Domestic Animals
dogs in Italy. In January 1989, in the mountain town of Mucuchı´es,
Venezuela (human population, 2000), we estimated a population of 800 dogs
(1 dog/2.5 people). In 1994 it was estimated that 1,360,000 free-ranging
dogs lived in the communal lands of Zimbabwe (Butler and Bingham, 2000).
Human population there was estimated at 6,190,000, or 22 dogs/100 people,
or 1 dog per 4.5 people. The current data on dog populations in developing
countries shows a range of 8.1 dogs/100 people to 35 dogs/100 people
(Jackman and Rowan, 2007). In resource-rich locations such as the Mexico
City dump, we estimated 700 dogs/square kilometer and that is by no means
a record.
The United Nations World Health Organization classifies dogs in four
categories (WHO, 2004), and in the town of Mucuchı´es all four were represented: feral dogs, which are independent and unrestricted and live outside
the village (although individuals often came in during twilight hours); neighborhood dogs living in town and observable at any time of day independent
of humans even though they may recognize and beg from individuals; family
dogs that are more or less managed by humans but semi-restricted; and the
fourth category, the fully restricted dog that is totally dependent on humans.
This type of habitat partitioning by dogs is familiar (e.g., Boitani et al.,
1995; Macdonald and Carr, 1995; Macdonald et al., 2004).
People often refer to the semi- or unrestricted free-ranging village dogs
as strays, mongrels, pavement specials, or curs. The assumption is that these
are dogs which are the results of irresponsible ownership, or have severed
their relationship with humans, and live by foraging on garbage within or on
the margins of the village. But worldwide these dogs are phenotypically
remarkably similar in shape and size, suggesting to us that they are the result
of natural selection and adaptation to a niche. The uniformity of size, shape,
and behavior also suggests a lack of artificial selection. There is historical
evidence that smallish canids have continuously occupied villages since the
beginning of writing (Coppinger and Coppinger, 2001).
Researchers have studied various ecotypes and varieties of village dogs,
using names that reflect their assumed ontogenetic or phylogenetic history,
or their foraging strategy: they are stray dogs, pariahs, sylvatic, feral, or wild
dogs. Within the village environment are probably several ecozones which
elicit different foraging strategies, and over time and geography, differences
in the riches of the niches account for a variety of the observed adaptive
strategies. Ecologists interested in the behavior of carnivores make predictions about these social arrangements based on the “resource dispersion
hypothesis” (Carr and Macdonald, 1986; Macdonald et al., 2004).
Three of our study sites are Zanzibar (Coppinger and Coppinger, 2001),
Ethiopia (Ortolani et al., 2009), and South Africa (Gallant, 2002). The dogs
of Zanzibar are presented here as the type form of village dog. The study
site in Zanzibar, in 1996, was primarily rural Pemba (island) where people
live in villages off the road or in small towns along connecting roads. The
Chapter | 6 Differences in the Behavior of Landraces and Breeds of Dogs 199
people regard dogs as unclean animals, based on religious predilection. They
feel that dogs have diseases and have parasitic organisms living in their
mouths and nasal passageways. The wet noses of dogs are indications of
these infectious agents and should not be touched. In East Africa and many
other places in the world, rabies inflicted by dog bites is common. People
are also repulsed by dogs because they eat human feces and corpses; it is a
common notion to bury bodies deeply and cover them with stones so dogs
cannot get to a body. In places like Zulu-Natal, dogs digging up shallow
graves and eating bodies is a common problem in shallow rocky soil. In
countries where bodies are sometimes rafted away down rivers, when they
strand up on a beach dogs often eat the remains. Dogs are regarded the way
we regard rats: an animal ubiquitously present, a potential vector of disease,
a scavenger, and occasionally a thief, whose population needs to be culled
from time to time. In most areas of Africa the dog is regarded as both the
reservoir and the vector of rabies whether true or not.
In our interviews, the cultural dislike for dogs was invariably presented
first, followed by various individual modifications. These ranged from people who were disgusted by the thought of touching a dog, to others who
thought dogs had some value as alarms or hunters of pests.
Ortolani et al.’s (2009) study in Ethiopia suggested there was a difference
in behavior of village dogs depending on the predominant religion of the
village. In Muslim villages the dogs tended to disperse from approaching
strangers, whereas in Christian towns they tended to ignore strangers.
However, in Muslim mountain towns, a slightly higher percentage of dogs
were found in houses, a consequence of keeping sheep and goats in a section
of the house.
Phenotype
The dogs of Zanzibar are phenotypically similar to other village dogs we
have studied. As has been noted, village dogs around the world appear
remarkably similar. They are medium to small (1216 kg), with solid color
or piebald coats, in any mammalian color possible and in any combination.
Conformation is not without variation; ears, for example, range from pricked
to pendulous.
The small but numerous variations in size and shape are most likely the
results of local adaptation (dogs at the equator tend to be smaller than those
at increasing latitude and altitude), local founder effects (such as a high frequency of some color pattern), or genes introduced by household dogs or
local working breeds that stray into the village dog population. The dogs of
Mucuchı´es are larger than 10 kg, and are referred to locally as if they were a
breed descended from Simon Bolivar’s dog, Nevado. Occasionally,
Mucuchı´ans introduce/release European dogs (Pyrenean mountain dogs or
Saint Bernards) to “improve” the qualities of this free-ranging “breed.”
200 Genetics and the Behavior of Domestic Animals
Boitani et al. (1995) noted that the stray dogs in Italy often resemble the
Italian maremma shepherd dog (2030 kg), and in Patagonia, village dogs
often carry some aspect of the locally popular greyhounds. The Zulus in
South Africa will frequently introduce greyhounds into their local dogs
(Gallant, 2002).
The New Guinea singing dog is an example of a village dog that was
island-isolated for so long that it developed unique morphological and
behavioral characteristic. Larson et al. (2012) think that it now may be
extinct on the island as a breed due to the admixture with introduced
European breeds. The current breed of New Guinea singing dogs descended
from fewer than 14 individuals.
Behavior
Foraging
In Zanzibar, village dogs foraged in and around villages, in trash heaps, and
latrines. Dogs were common in and around marketplaces, fishing ports,
slaughterhouses—wherever human food was being processed. Killing domestic animals for food was not observed, as was also noted in Italy by Boitani
et al. (2006). From our own personal observations in South America, Africa,
and Europe, it was rare for village dogs to kill anything on its feet. However,
sick animals on the ground, including humans, could be killed and eaten.
Several people in Zanzibar reported that they fed dogs, but not routinely.
Most acted confused when asked what they fed to dogs. Food, especially
protein, was not abundant in human diets. Whether people liked dogs or not,
foraging behavior for the most part was independent of humans, except that
the source was usually human waste. Populations of dogs in places like the
FIGURE 6.1 Mucuchies Venezuela village dog with pups “improved” by the introduction of
St Bernards. Photo credit: Gail Langeloh.
Chapter | 6 Differences in the Behavior of Landraces and Breeds of Dogs 201
Mexico City dump are well fed, suggesting that something other than food
was limiting the population. The niche of the village dog, like the niche of
any species, has a lush center which declines in abundance toward the
margins.
Reproduction
There is little to no manipulation of dog breeding claimed by Zanzibaris,
except for one hunter who had a favorite female. Like foraging, reproduction
is the responsibility of the dog. Female and male dogs are promiscuous
(Daniels, 1983; Ghosh et al., 1984/1985). In Zulu-Natal, the Mexico City
dump, and Mucuchı´es, males were observed to line up and breed a female
sequentially, with little aggression between them. This kind of promiscuity is
common in our studies. Indeed when one sees a “pack” of dogs it is almost
always a bitch in heat followed by any number of males. Litters of pups can
have multiple fathers.
Females raise their own puppies independently of humans, and the literature suggests that no help is provided by male dogs or other members of a
group (Lord et al., 2013). Pups begin to follow their mother to food sources
at about 8 weeks. Pups often beg for food from people but for all practical
purposes pups are competing (poorly) with adults from the post-nursing stage
(Lord et al., 2013).
The reproductive success of village dogs was discussed by Beck (1973),
Boitani et al. (1995, 2006), Macdonald and Carr (1995), and Pal (2001).
These studies note little “successful” reproduction. Mortality of juveniles
was high for a variety of reasons, but partly because these populations are
pests and harassed by humans. Reece et al. (2008) estimated that in spite of
the harassment, village dogs in Jaipur sustained an average fecundity of 1.33
female pups per year, which suggests growing populations. Chawla and
Reece (2002) found that the dog population in this area was growing with
the human population (about 4% per year). This increase is likely lower than
normal as both Reece et al. (2008) and Chawla and Reece (2002) were
performing these studies to assess an attempt to control this city’s dog population through surgical sterilization. Similarly, on Pemba, it was reported that
when the population of dogs gets too high it has to be culled. However, since
there are no household dogs to restock this population, we must conclude
that reproduction among village dogs is self-sustaining no matter how high
puppy mortality is in any given year (Lord et al., 2013).
Hazard Avoidance
A striking difference between village dogs and wild canids lies in the avoidance of people. That avoidance is called “flight distance.” The onset of flight
in village dogs is initiated only at short distances and the flight is just adequate to prevent capture; it ceases with the achievement of the minimum
202 Genetics and the Behavior of Domestic Animals
distance. In contrast, wild canids, which scavenge dumps at night, usually
initiate flight before observational contact. The flight is rapid, increasing the
interspacing many times and perhaps terminating foraging for long periods
of time.
Village dogs in Zanzibar were shy of people although they often rested in
proximity to them or begged for food. Village dogs withdrew only when
approached too closely. Many showed little interest in people unless the people were eating. They paid scarce attention to us crawling around taking their
pictures. Most often they “foraged” in a way that increased the distance
between them and the observer. To lay a hand on one was difficult and
attempts were sometimes greeted with threats (snarl/growl or barking) and
withdrawal. (Rats displayed similar behaviors on Pemba, often approaching
our picnics and begging for food, often successfully, but scampering off,
squealing, if we tried to catch one.)
In Ethiopia, Ortolani et al. (2009) reported differences in flight distance
behaviors among dogs in different villages, suggesting developmental differences. The attitudes toward and treatment of dogs by local people affected
their adult hazard-avoidance behaviors.
In some villages of the world, dogs are preyed upon by people. One common report on Pemba was that North Korean construction workers bought or
captured dogs to eat. Local people viewed this behavior with a combination
of mirth and revulsion. However, the eating of village dogs (often puppies)
is reported virtually worldwide (Corbett, 1985; Lantis, 1980; Podberscek,
2009; Serpell, 1995; Titcomb, 1969).
Dogs that intrude in some noxious way are killed by people. On Pemba,
when the dog population is high, the army can be called out to reduce the
number of dogs in the face of obnoxious behavior or the presence of disease.

Visit at your own peril

I don’t think Europe’s as dog friendly as some Americans make it out to be. Not that they don’t have any issues with cats either. But the language barrier’s enough to make both parties unaware of each other. Save for a tiny minority. Public dog faeces’s such a big deal in places like Austria and Germany that dog poisoning‘s a common occurrence. Not to mention that stray dogs (actually more of a rural phenomenon now) like stray cats may also get shot by hunters.

Stray dog predation on both wildlife/game animals (often the case in Poland, Switzerland, Germany and Austria) and livestock (especially in France and to some extent, Italy as far as I know about it)’s treated as a big deal. Keep in mind Europe’s not without its upshots. Like I said, mongrels tend to go with stray dogs and they even constitute a substantial population there.

As for cats, there are attempts to sterilise them and based on German and Polish language reports, these are partly attributable to ownership practises, often agricultural. Realistically, anywhere’s not without their vices and virtues. Though cats (as well as dogs) aren’t always liked in Africa (depending on country, community and even individual), yet the former (cats) are arguably and practically native there.

Being domesticated first in Africa along with donkeys. The latter being dogs, originated from Eurasia and inevitably spread through Afro-Asiatic migration and may even constitute a proper invasive species to a degree (same for cats in Eurasia) when it comes to spreading diseases (wiping out Tanzanian lions) and preying on wildlife at will (Barbary macaques).

Heck they’re even considered an ecological disaster in Eurasia, not just in India and China (including Hong Kong) but also in Europe (same for cats in Cameroon). Admittedly I grew shocked from learning more about something before. Even if I still have my suspicions, that’s also enough to know what’ll happen if somebody went there unprepared without much foresight.

Onto something

Like I said, I somehow get the feeling Christianity and Islam’s distaste for homosexuality might also be related to fear of witchcraft. That’s if you extrapolate from not only witchcraft studies and early modern reports but also from communities like Valangi and Azande that still believe in similar things. Both of them explicitly associate lesbianism with witchcraft, a similar sentiment as echoed in Renaissance documents.

I do think some Christians (and Muslims) might be missing out something in understanding why Bible and Koran despise homosexuality which in this case needs further studying and evidence to back it up. Especially from extrapolating data from both Renaissance lore and contemporary witch-hunts and accusations.

If the disdain for homosexuality’s connected to witchcraft, as believed by Azande and Valangi but also Renaissance Europeans, then Koranic and Biblical writers might be onto something.