Gotcha!

Somebody else has a prophecy stating that both Russia and China may succeed in taking over US territories in whatever manner, close to what Celestial’s been saying for years. Not just former US territories like the Philippines but also current US territories like Alaska, mind you Alaska was previously Russian territory since the 18th century I think. Celestial said that this is because the United States is wicked, it doesn’t really defend the helpless and would rather cause trouble in the name of democracy, even socialists have long suspected this without realising the real reason why: America is Mystery Babylon, the nation-state said to corrupt the entire world with its evil and abominations. The Philippines is no better in many regards, as to warrant getting taken over by China as a comeuppance for its own sins.

Canada isn’t any better either really and would probably get invaded by Russia just the same, though America might get the worst treatment of all! That’s by disappearing into the waters for good, leaving little to no trace of America as we know it by tomorrow. Even if there will be vestiges of any discernable or noticeable American influence out in the world, that will all there is to them as much American influence is getting revoked these days. The Philippines might be next in line to willingly revoke much American influence here, the more America alienates it by doing the same thing the Philippines fears about China but to another former Spanish colony like Venezuela. There are even others who say that this may even embolden both China and Russia’s efforts to get territories themselves, because America set such an example this way.

It’s a matter of time when both Russia and China take over US territories and perhaps the US itself, that it’s a case of America getting its just desserts from its biggest rivals. But it might be underway by now given China’s plans to get us in some manner, thus fulfilling Biblical prophecy well. And it’s something we’ll never fight against due to our sins, that America has betrayed us will put us in a very awkward position choosing between America and China. Celestial had these prophecies about Russia taking over Europe due to its backsliding that some European countries may even willingly ally with it, however out of fear to avoid getting destroyed by it in some way. Russia has Ukraine and possibly Poland, though it could get the rest of Europe much sooner than expected. Especially if the US succeeds in destroying not only the European Union, but also NATO that both Denmark and Greenland willingly join Russia instead.

Canada and the countries that make up the United Kingdom (as this will be dissolved in due time, perhaps sooner than ever) will also join Russia, wherein Russia unseats America as the face of western civilisation this time. But Russia tends to fancy itself as a third Rome, which makes America a third Sumer. The first Rome is Rome itself, the second Rome is the Byzantine Empire and the third Rome is the Russian Empire. To analogise this to the United States, Sumer is the first Sumer; Babylon is the second Sumer and America is the third Sumer. Sumer being one of the earliest civilisations to emerge, long predating the coming of the United States by thousands of years. Though Sumer is arguably still around as Iraq, both Sumerian and Akkadian (the languages Iraq historically used) are long extinct.

Egypt meanwhile is witnessing some kind of revival of the Coptic language, which is its indigenous language that predates its current ongoing Arabisation. Egypt’s also one of the earliest countries mentioned in the Bible to get Christianised that it even houses its own longstanding indigenous church in the form of Coptic Christianity, that it’s practically home to one of the earliest devotional writers in the form of the Desert Fathers. It’s weirdly unfortunate that not a lot of Protestants pay mind to Christianity’s Greco-Roman roots, even when a good number of Christian names are derived from both Catholic and Orthodox saints like Barbara and Alexander. Mind you Egypt also became a Roman colony after being a Greek colony, both Egypt and Ethiopia are among the earliest African countries to get Christianised and are also mentioned in the Bible.

It’s kind of easy to overlook this with Egypt as it’s majority Muslim now, but even then you can still access to Arabic-language Bible readings (which a good number of Egyptian Christians likely also turn to), but I feel the strong influence of Zionism and some Protestants’ profound distaste for what seems Catholic makes them more sympathetic to Jews, whom they see as Protestant-lite, makes it harder to realise that there are still Christians in places like Jordan and Egypt, where they even offer free online Bible readings. But in a weird way it does testify to the prolonged survival of Christianity in these two countries, even if it kind of gets overlooked by many western Christians. One would logically wonder if countries like America might be less Christian than they proclaim themselves to be, even if it’s long-suspected by other preaches like AA Allen. Which makes any claim that America is Mystery Babylon all the more valid.

There’s somebody else who said that God’s out to use China, Iran and Russia as his weapons of anger at America and its allies for choosing to do evil without repenting or trying not to do evil, where they went on saying that America is a new Israel that became a new Babylon. America would be the worst-effected by warfare in the future, effectively becoming deserted over time like the original Babylon underwent. Not just by a civil war but also getting attacked by both Russia and China in WWIII at the same time, to the point where America’s truly made desolate as the Bible remains relevant yesterday, today and tomorrow. It is befitting that Babylon is the prototype for America, in the sense of being as powerful as they’re utterly corrupting. AA Allen even pointed out that America has a habit of churning out and exporting filth to the world, no matter how cool they appear to be at first glance.

Books like The Grapes Of Wrath and Forever Amber were even banned in other countries before for being obscene, but come the 2020s and books with even more explicit content aren’t even challenged much in other countries. AA Allen might even condemn dark romance books as vehemently as he would with Forever Amber, he’d probably torch things like paranormal romance if given something flammable to work with. It’s kind of surreal that early 20th century Australia had the audacity to ban sexually explicit books before, though towards the 21st century it’s gotten ironically lenient on it in a way. So America did get Australia to drink its wine, its Kool-Aid if you will, and corrupted it just the same. America is a house that’s deeply divided, becoming very unstable as to house a civil war soon. If Prince William does become the next King of the United Kingdom, expect more end-times prophecies to be fulfilled real quickly.

If this involves having to witness America’s utter destruction at the hands of its enemies, before or even when Britain itself dissolves into three separate countries not seen in years, then Wills would have the misfortune of being at the front seat of experiencing two declining empires. The British Empire will truly end when Britain dissolves into three nations (England, Wales and Scotland, with Northern Ireland getting reunited with the rest of Ireland) as much as others like Jamaica become republics themselves, the American Empire will truly end when it both falls into the worst civil war that’s to be unleashed and gets destroyed by its worst enemies like China, Russia and Iran, wherein the British monarchy will be finished and either his family don’t continue being royals for long or that they all die ingloriously. But even then Wills would be at the helm of the United Kingdom in its last days.

He will even witness its dissolution because he instigated it himself, that ultimately both Britain (as we know it) and America die together or successively so.

The African Americans of Britain

Though there certainly are some Africans Americans in Britain, most of Britain’s African diaspora population often come from the Caribbean. Predictably, countries like Jamaica, Barbados, Trinidad, Saint Lucia and the like are its former colonies and one of them became a republic just recently, though Jamaica’s planning on becoming a republic one day. These were the places where Britain held its slaves there, just like the rest of the Americas. But it seemed over time not only did white people become something of a minority, but also gradually lost power. So eventually black people came to be in positions of power and were already the majority by then.

This isn’t just the case with Jamaica but also the rest of the Anglophone Caribbean, even if they’re far from near-perfect in other regards. Considering that black people often constitutes the majority of the Anglophone Caribbean for most of the part, though I could be wrong about it, inevitably they may’ve retained whatever African traditions they brought over and clung onto that part of the Anglophone Caribbean has African influence in addition to the western and neighbouring Latin American influences. Both the Caribbean and contiguous Latin America celebrate Carnival, not to mention African Caribbeans are seen as rather westernised by Africans.

I kind of recall this YouTube video by a white Jamaican man, yes a Jamaican citizen of white British citizen. With a real Jamaican accent. While Jamaica stands by its motto ‘out of many, one people’, the white population was larger there. Most of them either left or more likely assimilated into the wider black population over time, so unsurprisingly most of the Jamaicans and their scions who make it to Britain tend to be black. It’s also just as unsurprising in a way that a good chunk of African Caribbean DNA contains a degree of European DNA, so there’s a chance that a good chunk of what’s already a white minority have assimilated into the larger Jamaican population.

This is also true for the wider Anglophone Caribbean population really, they might not be visibly mixed race but they do have significant traces of white DNA in them. Admittedly, many (if not most) of these white people were their ancestors’ enslavers, but it does explain some things really. Aside from that, although there is an Anglophone Caribbean diaspora in America, given there’s not much of a large homegrown black population in Britain for years that inevitably African Caribbeans would be the British equivalent to African Americans in most regards. Similar stereotypes, circumstances and problems that British West Indians face on some level.

The only real difference between African Americans and British West Indians is that the latter know where they come from in a way, regarding national origins at that. Of all the Anglophone Caribbean countries, Jamaica’s the one whose culture can be clearly traced back to the Akan Empire, if because both the former Akan Empire (Ghana and Cote D’Ivoire together) and Jamaica share the same folk hero: Anansie, basically Spider-Man before Spider-Man. Even Jamaican and Ghanaian accents sound rather similar, though this could be my opinion being not too exposed to Jamaican accents myself.

Whereas African Americans’ interactions with white people are far more extensive, so it’s going to be hard sounding actually West African for long. Though similar things can be said of British African Caribbeans too, especially when it comes to those who’ve grown up in Britain for long. But at other times, they’re no different. In the sense of being both westernised black people, more westernised than their African counterparts are, which is saying. Both of them are the descendants of Africans forcibly uprooted from their homelands and brought over to the Americas due to slavery, both of them were made to sire children by their European captors.

Both of them contributed to the music stage with things like hip hop, rock, rhythm and blues, soul, funk, disco, house and techno, if African American and reggae, calypso, soca, dub and dancehall, if African Caribbean. Because of the Anglophone Caribbean’s ties to Britain (same with Anglophone Africa), that British Black culture owes more to these two and with the average British Black experience being also an immigrant experience at that. Voluntary black immigration to America happened more recently, given much of historical black immigration that took place was involuntary. That’s not to say involuntary black migration to Britain didn’t happen at all.

But it historically didn’t happen in huge numbers for long, so this wouldn’t rise significantly until towards the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries. It took more than two centuries for Britain to develop a sizable black community, most of them having arrived fairly recently. Whatever preexisting black community it had was negligible for a long time, so it’s only now that Britain has a larger black community than it did before. As opposed to America where it hosted a larger black community earlier and longer, even if they often bore the brunt of oppression especially when they were enslaved. Though both countries were involved in the Atlantic Slave Trade, it seemed for Britain slavery often took place offshore.

Mostly in the Caribbean where it happened there but in America, slavery directly occurred on American soil. That’s not to say cultural appropriation is a nonissue for British African Caribbeans, but that African Americans have the displeasure of having to put up with their oppressors for so long that it was bound to happen (per Lipstick Alley, oddly enough). The fact that African Americans aren’t separated from white people for so long and often on American soil, not helped by that they’re outnumbered by them (even if it may not always be the case), means it’s going to be hard escaping one’s oppressors at all. It wouldn’t be any better for British African Caribbeans. But for the latter, there’s a sense of where they came from.

In a way because African Caribbeans know their parents’ and relatives’ homelands, since they have relatives over there they can always go there at any point in life. This is also the same for their African counterparts, whereas with African Americans unless if one of them’s married to either an African or a Caribbean, there’s really no way of knowing where their actual non-American relatives are or were. As to why African Caribbeans are the African Americans of Britain, whilst they’re not necessarily so identical to them, they’re similar enough in the sense of being westernised black people facing oppression at any point in Britain and the like. Though it’s not identical as I said before, it’s generally comparable.

African Caribbeans often tend to have westernised names, clearly inherited from their slaveholders, whereas Africans still have very African surnames like Gyamfi, Boateng and the like (admittedly, those are Ghanaian Akan surnames at that). Maybe not all Ghanaians even but it’s telling that both African Caribbeans and African Americans are westernised, especially in comparison to black Africans in many regards. It’s even fair to say that both African Caribbean and African American cookeries have diverged from their African counterparts, owing more to the available resources in the lands enslaved Africans ended up in.

So this is kind of inevitable since they’re so detached from their African compatriots for such a long time that they ended up creating their own cultures from scratch. They did their best to retain their African traditions as much as possible, but given the nature of geographical logistics, it’s only as much as they could. So they inevitably went their own ways, developing cultures separate from their estranged compatriots.. So we get different African diasporic cultures instead taking place in the Americas, the most influential one being the African American culture. Then comes African Caribbeans to an extent, though this is more strongly felt in the United Kingdom due to colonial ties.

No surprise why African Caribbeans were the ones who brought over things like reggae, calypso and dub to Britain, whereas African Americans originated things like blues, jazz and rock music (oddly enough) in America.

Yoga’s and dreadlocks’ convoluted journey

Yoga’s a kind of exercise cum religious meditation that not only originated in India but specifically among Shiva worshippers, Shiva being the Hindu god of destruction and he has his own cult among the Shaivites. According to a survey at PewResearch, while yoga originated in India the Indians most likely practising this are Sikhs and Jains. The latter two belong to other Indian-based religions like Sikhism and Jainism, which also revolve around vegetarianism.

It’s not that Hindus don’t practise yoga at all, but those who do are more likely to worship Shiva. If Shiva’s considered to be the originator of yoga, it makes sense why his followers would practise yoga perhaps more often than the average Hindu (and Indian) population. The PewResearch survey failed to take note of them, even if they’re good examples of Hindus practising yoga. (Shiva sadhus, like Shiva himself, also tend to have dreadlocks.)

In the case with yoga and dreadlocks, while the latter does have a precedent among certain indigenous North American communities but they got popularised by well non-Indians generally. Both of them have been detached from not only their ties to India and Hinduism, but also more specifically their ties to Shiva as soon as they’ve reached westward. In fairness, Rastafarianism did get influenced by Indian immigrants to some extent. Especially when it comes to marijuana and of course, dreadlocks.

Speaking as a Christian, it’s not that I condone Shiva worship but it’s worth noting that yoga does have its roots in Indian religions and among Hindus a specific sect. Shiva is one of the major gods in Hinduism, as part of the Trimurti (the Hindu equivalent to the Holy Trinity in Christianity). He is associated with not only the destruction and recreation of the world but also dance, yoga and the arts.

As for dreadlocks, it’s debatable whether if nonblack people can have it but among Asians there’s a precedent for this (or rather something similar) among Buddhists and Hindus. The actual reason why some Buddhists and Hindus wear such a hairstyle is to detach themselves from worldly obsessions, it’s part and parcel of being an ascetic. Well an ascetic by Buddhist and Hindu standards, so the deconsecration of such a hairstyle would be jarring to those who practise those things.

Dreadlocks among African Americans, on the other hand, spread among them as a way to reclaim an African identity and show solidarity with others in the African diaspora (especially Jamaican Rastafarians). It’s not always well-received, especially if it’s seen as unprofessional. Perhaps strangely enough, other than certain people of a certain age, dreadlocks especially among men isn’t always that well-received in many African countries either.

In the case with African Americans and everybody else in the African diaspora, there came a time when they wanted a Pan-African sentiment. So dreadlocks and the like became popular with them ever since they spread from Jamaicans. But the odd fact that both yoga and dreadlocks have this convoluted route going from being part of an otherwise niche demographic (if Indians did come to Jamaica, this explains a lot) to getting popularised by non-ascetic demographics.

Culturally Inappropriate Comedy

When it comes to discussions over what constitutes as cultural appropriation, it’s generally taking aspects of a culture whilst enforcing stereotypes about it and/or disrespecting the people behind it. Adrien Brody, an actor who hosted the programme Saturday Night Live, might be a good example of this. Not because he’s funny but because when he was introducing Jamaican musician Sean Paul he donned a dreadlocked wig and spouted fake Jamaican phrases.

In an attempt to honour Jamaican culture and Jamaicans, he ended up belittling them even by accident. If he did this in 2013 or 2020, he wouldn’t just be banned but also be roasted a lot on social media even though others have done something similar before at the time of its airing. While there could’ve been forum threads and LiveJournal essays about this before, in an era where there’s growing awareness of cultural appropriation and other racist ills such a gag will not fly well these days. Even then, Brody’s attempt at honouring Jamaican culture’s offensive at worst.

Sadly, cultural appropriation’s still being done not just to black people but also to anybody else. There are Jews who take offence whenever Christians appropriate and misinterpret their practices, treating them as a commodity for an apocalypse instead of an actual culture to be respected. (For some reason, you’ll never see Christians learning Aramaic, even though that’s one of the languages used for some Biblical texts.) What makes cultural appropriation problematic is how insincere it comes off to other people. It’s not admiration.

It’s not even assimilation, it’s disrespecting people and culture while borrowing facets of it. It reinforces stereotypes or narrow views of a certain culture, for instance it’s like thinking only Jews speak Hebrew but not Yiddish nor Aramaic. The latter’s even used in the Bible. They do things without the others’ consent or respect, that’s why cultural appropriation is bad.

Rule Britannia?

Recently, Queen Elizabeth II has died. Britain could have a new monarch in Prince Charles, soon to become King Charles if time passes enough. She has lived a long life enough to witness various changes in her lifetime ranging from many African colonies becoming republics between the 1950s and 1960s to the death of Princess Diana and Brexit (Britain going away from the European Union). I’m not sure if Charles would ever make Britain return to the European Union, if he ever wills it at all.

But with Barbados now a republic and Jamaica planning on becoming one, it seems some of the Commonwealth countries are renouncing their ties to the United Kingdom. The more they do it, the more they escape from the Queen’s rule. While Queen Elizabeth may’ve lived long enough to witness Barbados become a republic, the rest of Barbardos’s republican days will be overseen by Prince Charles and later on his own two sons. Not to mention there’s some controversy over the wars and violence that happened during Queen Elizabeth’s rule.

Not just the three cod wars with Iceland, but also violence perpetuated against Kenyans during the Mau Mau uprising. She’s no saint, given the colonial violence aimed at Kenyans and their ilk. Perhaps it’s probably a good thing for Caribbean and African countries to cut ties to Britain, given how negatively impacted they are by her rule and how they fought for self-sovereignty. Of course, that doesn’t stop some from having positive opinions of their coloniser.

But the British Empire, like all other European empires, became a shadow of its former self once other countries like Ireland, Nigeria and Kenya fought for their independence and become republics. Perhaps it’s a good thing to lay the empire to rest.

Not the same thing

When it comes to black cultures, I say black cultures because black people can and do have different cultures between one another and each other, there’s bound to be a plurality of cultures and identities among them. This involves any degree of differences between them, it could be cultural but it could also be linguistic, geographic, historical and climatic. African Americans might differ from Afro-Brazilians in some regards, the differences would be that slavery lasted longer in Brazil (well up to the late 19th century) and that some Afro-Brazilians practise Candomble (a different non-Abrahamic religion).

Okay, so some African Americans practise Hoodoo (another non-Abrahamic religion) just as some African Americans practise Islam and Nation of Islam and many more are Christians. Afro-Brazilians begat funk carioca, African Americans begat rock music and hip hop. Likewise, Afro-Cubans may differ from their African American countries being most likely to practise Santeria even if not all of them do. Jamaicans differ by practising Rastafarianism and Obeah in addition to mainline and mystical Christianity (the latter encompasses both Pentecostalism and Charismatic Christianity).

Pet ownership rates may also differ in blacks, where black Americans are less likely to own pets than black Africans do, especially the ones that never left Africa. Even with black Africans, they still differ in some regards with Southern Nigerians more likely to own dogs and Ghanaians and Northern Nigerians more likely to own cats even if that’s not always the case either. Another crucial difference may be language and orthography, consider this: many Africans have used Arabic script (Ajami) to write their languages in prior to the advent of Westernisation and still do to some extent.

Many Ghanaians and Nigerians speak patois, many Kenyans and Tanzanians use Swahili even though three of them are Anglophones (as far as I know about them). Ghanaians use cedi, Nigerians use naira and Kenyans and Ugandans use shilling. But the real differences start with ethnic composition where Ghanaians are composed of Ewe and Akan, Nigerians are composed of the following ethnicities (Igbo, Ifik, Yoruba, Hausa and Kanuri) and many Ugandans tending to be Buganda. Even if all three of them are colonised by the British, they still stand out from one another.

Sometimes the differences are obvious, sometimes they’re subtle but they’re there alright. Black people aren’t that interchangeable with one another, though it could be said of any other ethnicity it’s still important to realise that cultures and ethnicities aren’t always that interchangeable with one another regardless of race and despite whatever similarities they have. Ivorians are also majority Akan but they differ from their Ghanaian counterparts by being Francophone and Catholic.

Cameroon may share a border with Nigeria but the Anglophone population’s just a significant minority at that and most of the people use French. That’s why it’s important to know that black people aren’t that interchangeable, especially if they have any real cultural differences between each other and that would also be useful for travelling as well.

Not interchangeable

I think if the differences between black ethnicities are any indication, African cultures and African diaspora cultures aren’t that interchangeable with each other to a given extent depending on the context of their cultures and countries with regards to their experiences which can differ. For instance, African Americans have a lower pet ownership rate than white Americans and it’s also lower than what’s there in African countries which could be higher. Some African cultures and African diaspora cultures have a culture of wearing fur, others don’t and they rely on weaving either animal fibres or plant fibres.

To expand on this, it’s not that Jamaicans never used leather and animal fur nor do African Americans never weave clothes out of plants (a shared history in being used for cotton plantations should tell you this) but African Americans differ from Jamaicans in that they see fur clothing as a status symbol, something they crave for and want especially if they’re female. Not that sub-Saharan Africans never use or wear fur, some of them do but others don’t which again proves my point that black cultures aren’t that interchangeable with each other in other contexts.

Pet ownership rates could be different for each demographic, culture and country where Muslim Hausa and Fulani have more cats than Igbo and Yoruba people do (but this is reversed between the Muslim Malians and Christian Togolese). The South African Zulu have a culture of wearing leopard pelts or using them in some way, but the Cameroonian Bamileke weave, embroider and wear toghu garments instead. Again, African cultures shouldn’t always be considered interchangeable with one another as their customs, experiences, languages and even pet ownership rates may differ.

To put it this way, the differences between African Americans and Jamaicans would be comparable to the differences between Americans and Canadians, the latter’s still under British rule as a commonwealth whereas the former lives independently of it. Not to mention Canadians drink milk from plastic bags, still use British spelling and their fur industry’s bigger or contributes more to their economy. The differences between Ghana and Nigeria are that not only does Ghana have less Muslims, but also more cat owners among the cultural Christian population than Nigeria does.

Reggae comes from Jamaica just as rock, jazz, blues, doo wop and hip hop come from America and highlife comes from Ghana. It’s not that these cultures are entirely devoid of influences between each other and those of other countries, albeit to varying degrees where it’s safe to say that Democratic Republic of Congo’s influenced by the prior Kingdom of Congo and Belgium and Nigeria’s influenced by the Hausa Empire, Igbo and Yoruba kingdoms and Britain.

But the differences do exist on some level, Jamaica would not be interchangeable with Trinidad, Bahamas and Barbados even if they seem similar because they’re all Caribbean countries under British rule. The difference between Cuba and Puerto Rico is that while they’re both Caribbean, Puerto Rico’s under American rule but Cuba’s independent. I might know the differences between African countries a bit better, but it’s still telling in that Ghana has more culturally Christian cat owners than Nigeria does.

Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania are likelier to speak in Swahili as they do with English (though I could be wrong about Tanzania) whereas Nigeria and Ghana use patois, Cameroon is intermediate between Francophone and Anglophone Africa in that there’s a substantial minority that speaks English and that there’s a patois language that combines English and French. It gets more specific when you realise that Kenya could be different from Uganda in some regards as well.

I still think it’s a bad idea to treat Africans and blacks as interchangeable with each other in that in some contexts they could differ from each other as much as day and night do.

A Naturalist’s Sojourn in Jamaica (Google Books)

Search Results

Turtles of the United States and Canada – Page 47books.google.com.ph › books

Carl H. Ernst, ‎Roger William Barbour, ‎Jeffrey E. Lovich – 1994 – ‎Snippet view – ‎More editions
When eating Thalassia testudinum in the Bahamas, green turtles do not forage randomly, but instead maintain grazing plots … feral dogs (Canis familiaris), and jaguars (Panthera onca) are known to kill or molest adult females in the Americas.

* Dr. J. Bird Sumner on the Records of Creation. Appendix, No. ii. for a share of it, he withdraws himself in a pet, and. refuses to take it when afterwards offered to him. This jealousy, which allows of no rival in favouritism, induced a friend, when he first saw its humours, to observe how distinctly this pet of ours bore traces of the common failings of flesh and blood. The motives that influenced the dog-mind were as perceptible as if they had been declared in the words of some human sentiment.

“Prince’s manner of expressing his marked regard is by rubbing his head into the bosom of the object of his affection, much in the way that a cat rubs itself upon a person when particularly disposed to fondness. He is very select in his food. He rejects all vegetables, and eats only cooked flesh; yet he is passionately fond of cakes, particularly those that are spiced, and is perfectly greedy of sugar. He rejects fresh fish, but is insatiably disposed for that which is salt. His sight is not quick, nor his vision distinct; — this is said to be the failing of the breed. He is usually disposed to silence and reserve; but he barks, and that vehemently, when he is roused so to express his emotions. But the temper, and the unsociable and passionate regard for a single person in a household, here described, to the exclusion of every one else, is the characteristic of every individual of this particular race.

“I should not forget to mention that there is a wild Dog in Eastern Haiti, very different from the Feral Hound of St. Domingo, delineated by Colonel Hamilton Smith. This wild dog is called a Xibaro (Hibaro), and at all points resembles the Aguara dog

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of Surinam. When I was journeying up to the mountains of Maimon beyond the Yuna river, our path in the pine forests was crossed by a solitary Dog of peculiar make. As it lurched past us, I heard for the first time the Xibaro spoken of. When we came to the spot at which the dog had skulked into sight, we found, a little way off our track, a forest hog, which had been run down, and just slaughtered. The entrails were torn open, and the Xibaro had been gloating on the reeking blood and steaming viscera. My inquiries led to some precise information about this race of wild dogs. Tradition makes them Indian. They maintain a uniform character in every district in which they are known. They are prick-eared, middle-sized, and light-coloured. A sketch supplied me by a Spanish friend, I find still preserved among my St. Domingo notes, and I close this account of the Alco with a copy of it, as the representation of a remanent aboriginal hunting dog.”*

 

 

Bulletin of the Maryland Herpetological Society (Extrait/Excerpt)

Dear Herpetologists;
For many years the Jamaican iguana, Cyclura collei, was
thought to be extinct until a hunting dog captured one in
1990. The news that the Jamaican iguana still existed
brought excitement to the conservation community, however
this ray of hope is tempered by the continuing problems that
threaten the existence of this species.
Recent surveys suggest that no more than a hundred
Jamaican iguanas remain in the Hellshire Hills of Jamaica.
This population is threatened by habitat destruction and
predation by non-native predators such as mongooses, feral
pigs and dogs.
The newly formed Jamaican Iguana Research and
Conservation Group, with support from several other
organizations, including the Ft. Worth Zoo, have started an
ambitious species recovery plan. Research indicates that
young Jamaican iguanas are vulnerable to predators,
therefore, a headstarting program is underway. About 50% of
the young from wild nests are being captured and raised in
captivity for four years until they reach a size that will
protect them from most predators.
In addition to headstarting the young iguanas, plans are
underway to build reintroduction facilities to help the
captive raised animals adjust to the wild. To support these
efforts habitat conservation and control of non-native
predators is necessary. Consideration is also being given
to the establishment of another population on an island off
the coast of Jamaica.
We need your help! The above projects require financial
assistance. Your society can help by encouraging your
members, as well as the society itself, to sepd a
contribution to the Jamaican Iguana Research and
Conservation Group. In addition, yoii can publicize the
availability of the attractive Save the Jamaican Iguana
posters for $12.50. Your society can buy 10 posters for
$100 or 25 or more at $8 each (we’ll pay postage on the
group sales) and resale them at your meetings for a profit
or even give them away as door prizes or awards. The
proceeds from the sale of the posters will support the
Jamaican iguana conservation efforts.

Federal Register, Volume 48, Issues 12-16 (Google Books)

A brief description of these species and applicable threats is as follows:

Serpent Island gecko—This lizard is restricted to Round Island (151 hectares) where it is rare and Serpent Island (20 hectares) where it is considered very rare; both islands are near Mauritius. Predation from feral animals and habitat destruction are the chief causes of its decline (Honegger, 1979). There are estimated to be between 3,600 and 4,500 lizards remaining. The overall problems of the Round Island ecosystem and its resident herpetofauna have been presented in detail (Bullock, 1977). Round Island is presently a nature reserve and endemic lizards cannot, by law, be captured or exported from Mauritius. The lizards have also been discussed by Vinson and Vinson (1969) and Temple (1977).

Bahame species of Cyclura—All these species are listed in the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Red Date Book as being of concern (Honegger, 1979). The main threats to their continued survival include habitat destruction for resort development and

the introduction of feral animals, particularly mongooses, cats, and dogs which prey upon the iguanas, especially the young and juveniles, and destroy nests (Iverson, 1978). Introduced goats may compete for food (these species are vegetarian) and humans kill them for food or malicious”sport.” Nearly all these iguanas have very small ranges; many are limited to a single island. Discussions of the threats to these species are contained in Honegger (1979), Carey (1966, 1975), Iverson and Auffenberg (1979), Iverson (1978), Auffenberg (1975, 1976a, 1982), and Gicca (1980). While legal protection is afforded these iguanas in the Bahamas, the law is not enforced (Honegger, 1979). The Service has funded research on C. r. Tileyi to study a potentially serious fungal disease. Cuban and Cayman Islands iguanas— There are three subspecies of Cyclura nubila inhabiting Cuba (mainland and Isla de Pinos) and the Cayman Islands. These are: C. n. Caymenensis (one colony on Cayman Brac), C. m. lewisi (no less then 50 individuals on Grand Cayman Island, and C. n. nubila (Cuba

and adjacent islands and cays). The threats to these iguanas are similar to those of the Bahamas Cyclura (Honegger, 1979) and Townson (1981) has noted additional potential threats from habitat destruction. C. n. nubila is protected in Cuba. Turks and Caicos iguana—The same threats which apply to the Bahama Cyclura also apparently apply to this species (Honegger, 1979). It is found on most of the islands in the Turks and Caicos group. No specific protection laws have been enacted and although several cays where this species occurs are supposed to be reserves, protection is nil (Honegger, 1979). Jamaican iguana—The following is taken from Woodley (1980) who has reviewed the history and status of this species: “For a hundred years, they were only known to survive on the Goat Islands but, after the introduction of the mongoose and the interference consequent to the Second World War, that population became extinct in about 1948. But iguanas had, after all, survived on the mainland; in the Hellshire Hills.

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Hog-hunters have been catching occasional specimens up to 1978 and one of these, killed in 1969, was obtained by the author and positively identified. It is unlikely that the Jamaican iguana, already very rare, will survive the proposed development of the Hellshire Hills.” Round Island skink—This species is presently confined to Round Island off the coast of Mauritius. It was once found on Flat Island and Gunner’s Quoin until exterminated by rats. In 1974, the population was thought to be between 4,000–5,000 but declining. Those factors contributing to the decline of other species on Round Island (Bullock, 1977) are also thought to be contributing to the decline of this species (Honegger, 1979; also, see Temple, 1977, and Vinson and Vinson, 1969). Aruba Island rattlesnake—According to Honegger (1979), the habitat of this rattlesnake is shrinking as a result of increasing human activity. Collection may also be contributing to its decline. Lar Valley wiper—Andren and Nilson (1979) have reviewed the biology of this species and state: “Vipera latifii Mertens, Darevsky and Klemmer, a recently described viper from northern Iran, is in severe need of conservation. Its range is restricted to unique, alpine Lar Valley, which in a few years will be used as a huge water reservoir. Observations on the biology of Vipera latiffii are given. Sympatric amphibians and reptiles show ecotypic adaptations.” Central American river turtle—This large river turtle is found only in the coastal lowlands of southern Mexico, northern Guatemala, and Belize. It is hunted extensively for its meat and has been seriously depleted throughout much of its range. According to Alvarez del Toro et al. (1979), this exploitation could lead to its extinction. Additional information on its biology is contained in Smith and Smith (1979) and Iverson and Mittermeier (1980). The Service will follow Iverson and Mittermeier (1980) in the spelling of the specific epithet (i.e., mawii). Summary of Factors Affecting the Species

Section 4(a)(1) of the Endangered Species Act (16 U.S.C. 1531 et seq.) and regulations promulgated to implement the listing provisions of the Act (codified at 50 CFR Part 424; under revision to accommodate 1982 amendments) states that the Secretary of the Interior shall determine whether any species is an Endangered species or a Threatened species due to one or more of the five factors described in Section 4(a)(1) of

the Act. This authority has been delegated to the Assistant Secretary for Fish and Wildlife and Parks. These factors are as follows: (A) The present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) Overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes; (C) Disease or predation; (D) The inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) Other natural or manmade factors affecting its continued existence.”

The reptiles proposed for listing as Endangered and Threatened species relate to these factors as follows (numbers refer to factors above): Serpent Island gecko—(A) Rabbits and goats were introduced onto Round Island in 1840 and these animals have destroyed the island’s vegetation so that severe erosion has resulted. The loss of this vegetative cover is thought to have resulted in the loss of available habitat for this species. (C) Since there are no palms on Serpent Island, the scarcity of this species on Round Island has also been attributed to predation. Acklins ground iguana—(A) This species is found only on Fortune Island and Guana Cay in Acklin’s Bight. There are probably less than 1,000 individuals remaining. Increased human settlement in the Bahamas has resulted in the loss of available habitat for this species. (C) Predation by people who use this species for food is thought to have decreased its numbers. (D) While legally protected in the Bahamas, the law is not enforced. Allen’s Cay iguana—(A) This species is found in the Allen Cay group at the northern end of the Exuma Island chain. Like other species of Bahamian iguanas, this species has lost habitat because of human encroachment. There are 75–100 individuals remaining on each island of the group. (C) This subspecies is threatened by being needlessly slaughtered by tourist fishermen for “sport” and is sometimes hunted by local people for food. (D) This iguana is legally protected by the Bahamas, but the law is not enforced. Andros Island ground iguana—(A) This species is primarily found along the western two-thirds of the Andros group. This iguana is losing habitat to agricultural and commercial development and from lumbering. (B) According to Honegger (1979), there is extensive commercial exploitation. (C) This species is used for food by local people who hunt it with dogs. Hog predation on its eggs is also a problem. (D) This iguana is legally protected by

the Bahamas, but the law is not enforced. Cayman Brac ground iguana—(C) This iguana is known only from Cayman Brac and Little Cayman Islands although introduced onto Grand cayman. The population has been reduced by predation from feral pigs, cats, and dogs. Humans also hunt the ground iguana. Cuban ground iguana—(C) This iguana is known from Cuba, Isla de Pinos, and a number of offshore islands and cays. All populations are probably suffering from predation by feral pigs, cats, and dogs. Humans also occasionally hunt the ground iguanas. Exuma Island iguana—(A) This iguana is found on Bitter Guana Cay, Guana Cay, Prickley Pear Cay, and Allen Cay in the Exuma group. This subspecies is threatened by the development of its remaining habitat primarily for commercial and residential purposes. (B) Honegger (1979) states that commercial trade is a threat to this subspecies. (C) Hunting of the iguanas for food and shooting them for “sport” by tourists are threats to this iguana. (D) While this iguana is protected by Bahamian law, the law is not enforced. Grand Cayman ground iguana—(C) This iguana is known only for Grand Cayman; there is believed to be a population of not less than 50 individuals remaining. Threats to the population are mainly thought to be predation from feral pigs, cats, and dogs. Humans also hunt the ground iguanas in the Cayman Islands. Jamaican iguana—(A) Until recently, this species was thought extinct. However, it survives probably is very low numbers in the Hellshire Hills. This area is proposed to be developed. If this occurs, the remaining small population will become extinct. (C) Dogs and people are known to kill these iguanas. Any such loss to the population is a threat to its continued existence. Mayaguana iguana—(A) This subspecies is known only from Bobby Cay east of Mayaguana. According to Honegger (1979), there has been some loss of habitat due to human activities. (C) This species is hunted by local people for food. (D) While legally protected by Bahamian law, the law is not enforced. Turks and Caicos ground iguana—(A) This iguana is found throughout the Turks and Caicos group. According to Honegger (1979), it is declining because of the loss of suitable habitat through housing development and agriculture. (C) Like other ground iguanas, this species is subject to predation from humans and feral dogs and cats. (D) While some of the islands on which this species occurs have been designated as reserves, enforcement is nil. Watling Island (San Salvador) ground iguana—(C) This species is known only from Green Key, Man Head Key, Pidgeon Key, Low Key, and Goulding Key. Though previously reported from White Key and a number of adjacent keys, Gicca (1980) and Auffenberg (1982) note that none were found on these keys during surveys in 1974 and 1981, respectively. There may be a small remnant on San Sahvador in the interior of the island. Causes for extirpation and decline include predation by humans for food and the introduction of feral predators. In addition, a serious fungal disease has in the past affected this subspecies; its cause and long term effects are unknown.but many iguanas have been scarred by it. White Cay ground iguana—(A) This iguana is known only from White Cay in the Bahamas where there are believed to be less than 1,000 individuals. The main threat to this species is from the loss of habitat from an encroaching human population. (B) According to Honegger (1979), the live animal trade could be having an adverse effect on this species. (C) Humans are predators on this species for food. Round Island skink—(A) This species is now restricted to Round Island. Rabbits and goats were introduced onto Round Island in 1840 and these animals have destroyed the island’s vegetation so that severe erosion has resulted. The loss of this cover is though to have resulted in the loss of available habitat for this species. (C) Rats are known predators and are thought to have eliminated this species on Flat Island and Gunner’s Quoin. Central American River turtle: (B) This large river turtle is found only in the coastal lowlands of southern Mexico, northern Guatemala, and Belize. It is hunted extensively for food and has been seriously depleted throughout its range. If this intensive exploitation continues, not only will the turtle disappear, but the local inhabitants will lose an important part of their diet. Turtle meat labeled as from Dermatemys has occasionally been imported into the United States. However, as shown in a recent law enforcement case, this meat was actually from sea turtles. The extent of possible international commercial trade in meat from this turtle is impossible to gauge, but could be significant as there have been numerous inquiries from soup companies as to its legality for trade. Aruba Island rattlesnake—(A) According to Honegger (1979), the habitat of this rattlesnake is shrinking as a result of increasing human activity.

(B) The extent of this problem is unknown, although overcollecting may be a problem for this species. However, captive propagation, such as undertaken at the Houston Zoo (Carl et al., in press) should be able to provide needed specimens for education and zoological display. Lar Valley viper—(A) This species is confined to the alpine Lar Valley in Iran. According to Andrew and Nilson (1979), there is the threat of construction of a dam for a water reservior which would eliminate its habitat.

Effects of the Proposal if Published as Final Rule

Endangered species regulations already published in Title 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations set forth a series of general prohibitions and exceptions which apply to all Endangered and Threatened species. The regulations referred to above, which pertain to Endangered and Threatened species, are found at $$ 17.21 and 17.31 of Title 50, and are summarized below.

With respect to the 17 species of reptitles in this proposed rule, all prohibitions of Section 9(a)(1) of the Act, as implemented by 50 CFR 17.21 and 17.31 would apply. These prohibitions, in part, would make it illegal for any person subject to the jurisdiction of the United States to take, import or export, ship in interstate commerce in the course of a commercial activity, or sell or offer for sale these species in interstate or foreign commerce. It also would be illegal to possess, sell, deliver, carry, transport, or ship any such wildlife which was illegally taken. Certain exceptions would apply to agents of the Service and State conservation agencies.

Permits may be issued to carry out otherwise prohibited activities involving Endangered and Threatened species under certain circumstances. Regulations governing permits are codified at 50 CFR 17.22, and 17.23, and 17.32. Such permits are available for scientific purposes, the enhancement or propagation or survival of the species, and economic hardship.

Literature Cited

Alvarez del Toro, M., R.A. Mittermeier, and J. B. Iverson. 1979. River turtle in danger. Oryx, Nov., pp. 170–173

Andren, C. and G. Nilson. 1979. Vipera Latifii (Reptilia, Serpentes, Viperidae) an Endangered viper from Lar Valley, Iran, and remarks on the sympatric herpetofauna. J. Herpetol. 13:335–341

Auffenberg, W. 1975. The dragon isles: West Indian rock iguanas. Bahamas Nat. 1(1):2–7

1976a. Bahamas rock iguanas, Part two.

Bahamas Nat. 2(1):9–16

1976b. First description of an adult Varanus grayi. Copeia 1976:586–588 1979a. A monitor lizard in the Philippines. Oryx, June. pp. 39–46 1979b. Research on monitor lizards. Tigerpaper. 4(4):20–21 1982a. Conservation of Bahamian rock iguanas (Cyclura sp.). Project report to U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv., Washington. D.C. 16 pp 1982b. Final report: A study of activity patterns and spacing in Varanus grayi. Final rept. to U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C., 5 pp., 1 fig. 1 table Bullock, D. 1977. Round Island—a tale of destruction. Oryx, July. pp. 51–58 Carl, C., K.H. Peterson, and R.M. Hubbard. In press. Reproduction in captive Aruba Island rattlesnakes, Crotalus unicolor. Herp. Rev Carey, W.M. 1966. Observations on the ground iguana Cyclura macleayi caymanensis on Cayman Brac, British West Indies. Herpetologica 22:265–268 1975. iguanas on the rocks. Animal Kingdom 78(2):15–20 Gicca, D. 1980. The status and distribution of Cyclura r. rileyi (Reptilia: Iguanidae) a Bahamian rock iguana. Carib. J. Sci. 16(14):9–12 Honegger, R.E. (ed.) 1979. Amphibia and Reptilia. IUCN Red Data Book, Vol. 3, Morges, Switzerland Iverson, J.B. 1978. The impact of feral cats and dogs on populations of the West Indian rock iguana, Cyclura carinata. Biol. Conserv. 14:63–73 Iverson. J.B. and W. Auffenberg. 1979. Status and biology of Bahamian archipelago rock iguanas (Cyclura). Paper presented of Bahamian archipelago rock iguanas Cyclura). Paper presented at joint meeting of the Herp. League and Soc. Study Amphib. and Rept., Knoxville, TN Iverson, J. B. and R. A. Mittermeier. 1980. Dermatemys mawii. Cat. Amer. Amphib. Rept. 237.1–237.4 Smith, H. B. and R. B. Smith. 1979. Synopsis of the Herpetofauna of Mexico. Vol. VI. Guide to Mexican turtles, Bibliographic Addendum III. John Johnson Publ., N. Bennington, VT Temple, S.A. 1977. Castaway reptiles of the Indian Ocean. Anim. Kingdom. Aug./Sep. pp. 19–27 Townson, S. 1981. West Indian iguanas of the genus Cyclura: the threat of habitat destruction in the Cayman Islands. Br. J. Herpetol. 6(1):101–104 Vinson, J. and J. M. Vinson. 1969. The Saurian fauna of the Mascarene Islands. Maur. Inst. Bull. 6(4):203–320 Woodley, J. D. 1980. Survival of the Jamaican iguana, Cyclura collei. J. Herpetol. 14:45– 49